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Chronic diseases --- Health transition --- Epidemiological transition --- Transition, Epidemiological --- Transition, Health --- Diseases, Chronic --- NCDs (Noncommunicable diseases) --- Non-communicable diseases --- Non-infectious diseases --- Noncommunicable diseases --- Epidemiology --- Diseases

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Infectious diseases. Communicable diseases --- Croatia --- Bulgaria --- Romania --- AIDS (Disease) --- Acquired immune deficiency syndrome --- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome --- Acquired immunological deficiency syndrome --- HIV infections --- Immunological deficiency syndromes --- Virus-induced immunosuppression

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Bangladesh's vulnerability to the effects of climate change is well documented; the evidence on the direct relationship between climate change and health focusing on Bangladesh is less so. Global evidence suggests intensification of climate change will increase incidences and variations of infectious diseases. Climate Afflictions contributes to filling this important knowledge gap. It includes a systematic review of existing literature on the relationship between climate change and health, distinguishing between climate change and variability. It establishes the relationship between climate variability and infectious diseases and mental health using household-level data. It also documents changes in climate patterns in Bangladesh over the past 44 years using monthly meteorological data. Overall, the report finds a strong relationship between infectious diseases, mental health, and climate variability. Based on analyses of primary data, it concludes that the prevalence of vector-borne diseases is higher during the monsoon than dry seasons, while the opposite is true for waterborne illnesses. Meanwhile, rising humidity and mean temperature are positively associated with respiratory illnesses. In terms of mental health conditions, while temperature is negatively correlated to depression, anxiety among individuals is likely to increase with temperature and humidity. Irrespective of the season, morbidity and mental health issues are highest in densely populated urban hubs such as Dhaka and Chattogram compared to other areas. The mean temperature in Bangladesh has increased by 0.5 degree C between 1976 and 2019. Overall, summers are becoming hotter and longer, the monsoon season is extending, and winters are becoming warmer. Consequently, Bangladesh is on the path to losing its distinct seasonality. With global warming progressing faster than initially projected, stresses on human health may be elevated to an extent that can overburden the systems to a point at which adaptation will no longer be possible. Countries susceptible to climate change, like Bangladesh, need to be better prepared.

Climate and Health --- Climate Change --- Climate Variability --- Dengue --- Household Data --- Infectious Diseases --- Mental Health --- Seasonal Illness --- Seasonality --- Urban Challenges --- Urban Rural Migration

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Hygiene. Public health. Protection --- Infectious diseases. Communicable diseases --- Eastern and Central Europe --- Central Asia --- AIDS (Disease) --- Prevention. --- Acquired immune deficiency syndrome --- Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome --- Acquired immunological deficiency syndrome --- HIV infections --- Immunological deficiency syndromes --- Virus-induced immunosuppression

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In the public sector in developing countries, leakage of public resources could prove detrimental to users and affect the well-being of the population. This paper empirically examines the importance of leakage of government resources in the health sector in Chad, and its effects on the prices of drugs. The analysis uses data collected in Chad as part of a Health Facilities Survey organized by the World Bank in 2004. The survey covered 281 primary health care centers and contained information on the provision of medical material, financial resources, and medicines allocated by the Ministry of Health to the regional administration and primary health centers. Although the regional administration is officially allocated 60 percent of the ministry's non-wage recurrent expenditures, the share of the resources that actually reach the regions is estimated to be only 18 percent. The health centers, which are the frontline providers and the entry point for the population, receive less than 1 percent of the ministry's non-wage recurrent expenditures. Accounting for the endogeneity of the level of competition among health centers, the leakage of government resources has a significant and negative impact on the price mark-up that health centers charge patients for drugs.

Health Indicators --- Health Monitoring and Evaluation --- Health services --- Health Systems Development and Reform --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Hospitals --- Infectious diseases --- Life expectancy --- Medicines --- Mortality --- Patients --- Primary health care --- Public health --- Public Sector Expenditure Analysis and Management